Paternity testing and the context under which it is done have undergone tremendous change over the last two decades. For one, the number of people seeking a paternity test has increased tremendously over the last couple of decades. As people adopt more and more liberal sexual attitudes, many men are finding themselves doubting the paternity of children they are alleged to have fathered, and the only way out of such disputes is often a paternity test. As it were, with the sexual liberation, many women are now increasingly having multiple partners (which was hitherto the preserve of men). Now the tricky thing here is that while maternity is almost always a certainty ? as a woman usually has a clear chance to know the baby she gives birth to is hers hence not much demand for maternity tests even when there is polygamy ? it is on the other hand harder for a man to establish whether he indeed sired a given baby. It doesn't help that many women who are now having multiple partners tend to compartmentalize them, a situation where handsome (but not-so-well-off) Jack ends up being compartmentalized as the ?baby daddy? to sire the babies, and rich (but-not-so-handsome) James ends up being compartmentalized as the ?baby daddy? to provide for the babies, a situation which is obviously unfair to James, who will almost inevitably ask for a paternity tests once he suspects that he is being used in such a way. The technology used to conduct the paternity tests has advanced over the last two decades too. A huge milestone in paternity testing was the adoption and popularization of DNA based paternity testing in the mid to late 80s, and which gave the paternity tests a level of accuracy hitherto unimaginable. Before DNA based paternity testing become an accessible possibility, people mostly had to make do with blood type tests, which were eliminatory rather than confirmatory tests. That is to say, such blood type tests would only eliminate the chances that a given man had sired a given child, but always left the possibility that the child could still have been sired by another man with a similar blood group to the man in question. DNA based paternity tests on the other hand are not only eliminatory, but also confirmatory. Paternity testing has also become more convenient (and generally less painful) over the last two decades. In the days when paternity testing was based on blood group typing, both the father and the son (or daughter) had to go to a medical laboratory, have blood drawn (obviously through a painful needle prick) and then wait for results ? which as we have seen, would only be eliminatory. With the advent and advancement of DNA technology however, paternity testing has become rather convenient ? the only ?intrusive? (if we may call it that) part of the test often being a painless swab in the inner cheek to draw the DNA sample, which can be even send by mail to the testing laboratory. Paternity testing is also becoming cheaper and cheaper by the day. At the beginning of DNA based paternity testing, many men who were interested in establishing the paternity of their children, or children who were themselves interested in establishing their paternity were often put off by the high costs involved. At that time, the production of most of the kits used for the process was the preserve of the companies that had done initial research in the field of DNA testing and therefore gotten themselves patents. As these patents expire however, more and more companies are venturing into the production of these kits, thereby increasing competition in their production and lowering prices for the users of the technology. Ultimately, this translates into falling prices for paternity tests.
A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during childbirth, except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation, it is obvious who the mother is.
This by DNA analysis of the three individuals, although older methods have included ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using HLA antigens. For the most part however, DNA has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.
The DNA of an individual is almost exactly the same in each and every somatic cell. Sexual reproduction brings the DNA of both parents together randomly to create a unique combination of genetic material in a new cell, so the genetic material of an individual is derived from the genetic material of their parents. This genetic material is known as the nuclear genome of the individual, because it is found in the nucleus.
Comparing the DNA sequence of an individual to that of another individual can show if one of them was derived from the other or not. Specific sequences are usually looked at to see if they were copied verbatim from one of the individuals genome to the other. If that was the case, then this proves that the genetic material of one individual was derived from that of the other (i.e.: one is the parent of the other). Besides the nuclear DNA in the nucleus, the mitochondria in the cells also have their own genetic material termed the mitochondrial genome. Mitochondrial DNA comes only from the mother, without any shuffling.
Proving a relationship based on comparison of the mitochondrial genome is much easier than that based on the nuclear genome. However, testing the mitochondrial genome can only prove if two individuals are related by common descent through maternal lines only from a common ancestor and is thus of limited value (for instance, it could not be used to test for paternity).
Obtaining news that a child either is or isn't one's own is something that a parent or erstwhile parent can undertake at their own expense, without necessarily informing anyone either about the test or its result. However this situation will change when the Human Tissue Act comes into force in the UK in April 2006. Section 45 states that it will be an offence to possess any bodily material intending that any human DNA in the material be analysed without qualifying consent
Tests can also be ordered by courts when proof of paternity is required.
Non-paternity rates !
Meta-analysis of a wide variety of genetic studies appears to show that the rates of non-paternity in the general population are on the order of 4% [1] to over 30%, depending on the social group involved. Many find these rates surprisingly high.
How is DNA Used in Paternity Testing?
Certain regions of human DNA show variations between people. At each of these regions a person possesses two genetic types (known as alleles), one inherited from each parent. By looking at a number of these variable regions in a person a DNA profile is produced. By comparing the DNA profiles of the mother and child it is possible to determine which half of the child's DNA was inherited from its mother (maternal alleles). The other half must therefore have been inherited from the child's biological father (paternal alleles). The alleged father's profile is then examined to determine whether he has the DNA types in his profile that match the paternal alleles in the child. If the man's DNA types do not match the child's, he is excluded as the biological father. If the DNA types match, then he is not excluded as the father.
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