We often use metaphors in our written and spoken languages to show one thing within terms of another. It is sometimes very useful to use a different set of words and phrases to compare one thing with another. Your language can become more colorful if combined with different bodies of speech on the background of simple words and sentences.



Another figure of speech which is widely used in our language is metonymy. However, metonymies are used to emphasize contiguity between two referents, while metaphors are mainly used to show similarity between two.

The use of metaphor, either verbally, or in written discourse, to

describe scenes & explain events in the world around us is very

common, its use enables us to understand & experience one type of

thing within the conditions & terms of another, whereas metonymy is

the use of one entity to refer to another that is related to it, &

includes 'synecdoche' where the part stands for the whole, Lakoff &

Johnson, (1980:36).

According to Lakoff & Johnson, (1980: ix) metaphor is ever-present, in

language, as well as thought & action. They, along with Pinker, (1997:

352 et seq) perceive human thought processes to be metaphorical in

nature; Pinker also suggests that some metaphorical concepts have

grown to be so common, across the whole range of speech acts & other

events that we experience, that they are no longer recognizable to the

layman as metaphorical expressions, so entrenched within our everyday

language use have they become. According to this insight into

metaphor, it can be seen as one of the principal methods by which

language evolves, Jaynes, (1990), moreover, repetition of a metaphor

can bring it into ordinary language, eventually warranting a

dictionary entry.

As metaphor is so deeply rooted within our everyday language use, it

would be surprising if written discourse was free of metaphorical

expression. In fact, on reading through various types of texts, very

few, if any, can be said to be totally free of metaphor &/or metonymy,

even those texts written by 'realists' who abhorred metaphor, such as

Hobbes & Locke, were littered with it, Chandler, (2001). Although many

examples of metaphor are not immediately obvious as such, this is

generally because they have become so familiar, so prevalent, within

everyday language use that they have ceased to be seen as metaphor;

the connotations of these metaphorical expressions are clear because

of their familiarity.

We often resort to metaphor when we encounter something unknown, or

perceive something that is difficult to comprehend or communicate,

according to Jaynes, (1990) we integrate these experiences to

'schemas' that are already available to us, which we adapt to cope

with these new experiences. To quote Jaynes, (1990: 52) "Understanding

a thing is to arrive at a metaphor for that thing by substituting

something more familiar to us." From this, it could be said that if

one were to attempt communication of something new or complex, without

the use of metaphor, then this lack of familiar reference could

inhibit comprehension, that, in fact, metaphor can increase the

efficiency & intelligibility of a text.

In agreement with Lakoff & Johnson, among others, it would seem that

the use of metaphor is so deeply rooted within our system of

communication that it would be difficult to describe anything, either

verbally, or through written discourse, without the use of metaphor,

in fact, it could be said that the use of metaphor enhances the

understanding of a text, adds to the significance of what is being

communicated, by referring to easily understood previously

known concepts, especially when attempting to convey new information.

The additional descriptive information that is established with the

use of metaphor can add emotive connotations aid evaluation of a

concept. Also, a less familiar metaphor may be understood due to the

contextual information available & the receiver's ability to

extrapolate from this.

Conversely, understanding of various metaphorical expressions may

depend on the culture one is accustomed to; it is possible that

certain instances of metaphor, especially novel but even conventional,

which are perfectly clear in meaning within the language (culture)

they originate from, may or may not translate clearly into another

language or culture. A good example of this comes from a recent

crime/comedy novel by Brookmyre, (2002) to quote, "the leader,

'Jarry', commenced the robbery with the words 'Alakazammy, stairheid

rammy'." Brookmyre often writes using a combination of English words &

Scottish colloquial terms. Stairheid actually means top landing or top

floor (of a tenement) & is a metaphor for face, face being the 'top

landing', whereas rammy is a violent disturbance or free for all,

(Scots-online). In the text, 'stairheid rammy' refers to a face to

face conflict, this is not an immediately familiar metaphor (to an

English person) without reference to a Scots/English translator, but

as the speaker (a Scotsman) in the text notes, "The stairheid rammy

part is familiar to anybody who's ever witnessed an argument up

close.", therefore, although stairheid rammy as a metaphor, is not

clear (to an English person), to a Scotsman it is obviously a clear &

effective metaphor for an argument or disagreement.

Metaphors are also often found to underline major theories of science

& philosophy, & studies of scientific terminology by MacCormac, (1971)

have revealed that the use of terms such as force & mass function as

metaphors, e.g. "But at the lower particle energies […] W+, W- & Z0

would acquire large masses, making the forces they carry have a very

short range." , Hawking, (1996:93) Out of context, this makes

absolutely no sense at all, but within the context of the book these

terms have perfectly clear meanings & are efficient in describing the

concepts of weak nuclear force & radioactivity.

According to Lakoff &Johnson, (1980:4) the language of argument within

the concept 'argument is war' is literal, not fanciful, poetic or

fanciful. A good illustration of the concept 'argument is war' can be

found in journalistic comment on political discussion.

Legislation under threat as upper house takes on the government […]

forced to pay attention […] sustaining their opposition […] How far

could the unelected upper house take its battle with elected MPs? […]

a savvy operator who has formed a formidable alliance with the Lib Dem

leader […] stayed up into the early hours negotiating. […] But the

battle was a symbol of escalating tensions […] that threatens […] This

week's stand-off […] Emboldened, they have stood their ground.

The Guardian, (22/11/03: 13)

All this from one article describing a disagreement between the

members of the House of Lords & elected MPs. The use of metaphorical

expression emphasizes the level of discord between the two groups, &

without the use of these metaphors it would be less easy to highlight

the intensity of this conflict. Another example of this common

conceptual metaphor can be found in a scientific text book about

quantum physics & is a perfect example of Lakoff & Johnson's

definition of the concept 'argument is war'.

Each attack on the Copenhagen interpretation has strengthened its

position. When thinkers of the calibre of Einstein try to find flaws

with a theory, but the defenders of the theory are able to refute all

of the attackers' arguments, the theory must emerge the stronger for

its trial.

Gribbin, (1984:177)

An interesting metaphor from a magazine article about Hungary likens

the country to a garment, & although this is an example of novel

metaphor the connotation is apparent & Kincses' use of these

additional components enriches the meaning of the text.

Next year, Hungary is set to join the EU, finally aligning itself more

with the west than the east. This has long been Hungary's dilemma,

says Kincses, who likens the country to "Europe's coat, where left and

right, east and west, are buttoned together, where the garment is most

vulnerable to wear and tear".

The Guardian Weekend, (22/11/03)

Another metaphorical concept, as described by Lakoff & Johnson,

(1980:7) is that of 'time is money', this is one of those previously

mentioned metaphors that are so common that it has almost ceased to be

seen as a metaphor, e.g. spending time, saving time, wasting time, "I

have been wasting quite a lot of time investigating these sites.", The

Guardian Weekend, (22/11/03:7) "It's more about how I want to spend my

time.", (ibid:25)

The following example of general use of metaphorical expression is

included purely for its funniness & needs no explanation.

I once had two giggly young women asking me if they could touch my

head, which they did, resoundingly, saying they had "never done a

slaphead before".

The Guardian Weekend, (22/11/03)

Orientational metaphors give a concept spatial orientation, such as

happy is up, sad is down, Lakoff &Johnson, (1980) "And she chooses

without too much concern for the 'upward trajectory' of her career.",

The Guardian Weekend, (22/11/03:25)

Metonymy is often more obvious than metaphoric concepts as it usually

concerns direct physical or causal associations, it is similar to

metaphor, although more focused, being referential & facilitating

understanding.

Examples of metonymy seem less common in written discourse, although

those that there are seem to be quite effective & understandable

within the context they are presented in. "Scores of Labour MPs still

plan top-up revolt.", Evening Standard, (05/01/04) Here 'top-up'

refers to university top-up fees for students proposed by the

government & would be obvious to anyone who reads newspapers or

watches the television news. "There'll always be a place for

plastic.", Evening Standard, (19/12/03) Here 'plastic' is referring to

credit cards, a common & easily understood use of metonymy. "The

midfielder was felled in a crunching tackle from his former team-mate

Mauricio Taricco, who somehow escaped a second yellow." The Guardian,

(27/12/03) The metonymic use of 'yellow' here refers to a yellow card,

used as a first warning, & in this case, yellow has a 2nd (metaphoric)

definition; being awarded two yellow cards in a game of football is

equal to a red card, from which follows expulsion from the game,

therefore 'second yellow' is a metaphor for a red card. What this

example of metonymy (& metaphor) refers to here may not be clear to

everyone, but would be immediately apparent to anyone with even a

rudimentary knowledge of the rules of football.

According to Lakoff & Turner, (1989: xi) metaphor is a tool that is

accessible to everyone, even children are familiar with everyday

metaphor, they also declare that metaphor aids our understanding of

ourselves & the world in ways that no other forms of thought can &

that it is essential to our imagination & to our reason. How could we

explain & understand new or difficult concepts without recourse to

metaphor, without the resource of explaining an event or object in

terms of another we would be at a loss when attempting to describe new

experiences. In some cases metaphorical expressions are not

immediately clear, this would usually be due to language or cultural

differences, & within one's own language even novel or unusual

metaphors are normally easily understood, often aided by contextual

information surrounding the metaphorical expression. This is in accord

with Baker, (1992) who maintains that texts by themselves are neither

coherent nor incoherent, that the coherence of a text is dependent on

the capability of the reader to make sense of it by its relation to

what s/he already knows or is familiar with. Wittgenstein, (1953)

states that verbal expressions are substitutes for more basic or

natural forms of behavior, this too goes well with the opinion that

human thought processes are metaphorical in nature; our verbal

expressions being extensions of our thoughts, & our attempts to

communicate them.