While porcelain had been made in France from the 17thC, it was a soft paste or pate tendre, but following the discovery of kaolin this changed to hard paste in 1769, which quickly prevailed across the continent. Hard paste, a mixture of kaolin and petunse, or china clay and china rock, fired to a temperature of in excess 1300 degrees centigrade with the glaze usually in a single firing results in a vitrified bright, glassy appearance, in which the enamels are fused into the body. Apart from a brief experiment with hard paste at Plymouth and Bristol, early English porcelain is of soft paste, although the factories experimented with different recipes, using soaprock at Worcester and the addition of animal bone at Bow. New Hall developed a hybrid hard paste body but this was greyer in comparison with the white body of both soft and pure hard paste. The first efforts were undertaken in London at Chelsea and Bow, but within a few short years the porcelains were being produced at factories across England. In cross section, the difference in the paste is apparent in what is traditionally described as an "icing sugar" appearance, whereas the soft paste shows a granular texture. The different firing temperatures and technique give a glaze which is softer and "floaty" in appearance, but sunk slightly into the surface, resulting in pieces of enormous charm and quiet beauty.
Many great continental factories were supported and even owned by royalty, easing the commercial pressures, unlike the English factories which relied on private enterprise. The history of the 18thC English factories, and indeed the 19thC, is littered with hardship and financial struggle, an ironic contrast to the sometimes vertiginous prices realised in the market for these wares today.
Bone china was the great English invention of Josiah Spode C1800. This contained a proportion of kaolin but the extra ingredient was the addition of animal bone, producing a ceramic of high translucency, whiteness and strength. Eventually all the English factories changed to the standard bone china mix which is still being made by today's famous English factories such as Royal Worcester, Coalport and Royal Crown Derby.
Brief History Of English
The world can be a dangerous place. Most of the time that is not the case. You can walk down the street safely without worries, and probably have someone by your side just in case. However, for those rare times when it is dangerous, protection is handy to have around. Pepper spray as a compact, easily concealed protection device is ideal for just such situations. When going to buy pepper spray though, you might have questions as to its origins and actual usage.
Pepper spray, also known as OC spray (standing for oleoresin capsicum) is derived from a certain genus of plants known as Capsicum. The most commonly known of these is the chili pepper. Accordingly, the amount of Capsaicin in the spray is measured to give the pepper spray its hotness rating and thus effectiveness. These numbers range from lower numbers in use by police for crowd patrol to the industrial strength pepper spray used to subdue bears.
The process of grinding up peppers and using them to blind one's enemies has been happening since days of ancient China. Developed in the 1960s, pepper spray was first marketed under the name Halt Animal Repellent. Pepper spray, derived from the slew of tear gases, mustard gases, and hybrids used by the military and police forces of the world since the 19th century, was first used by the Postal Service in the 80's as a dog repellent.
For the rest of the decade, pepper spray was used mostly for animal repellent, soon adopted by hunters and forestry agents in case of a wild animal attack, as violent as a bear attack. Pepper spray's domestic use did not pick up until the early 1990s when more than 3000 police forces, driven by the endorsement by the FBI of pepper spray as a safe crowd deterrent, picked it up as a standard weapon in their arsenal.
Law enforcement's decision to pick up and use the substance led to the spread of it as a common self defense substance throughout the nation. Marketed in small, compact canisters, it became quite easy to buy pepper spray for use as a crime deterrent for the average man or woman on the street. Often concealed in a purse or something as small as a pendent or ring, pepper spray is a perfect self defense tool in that it will allow the incapacitation of a mugger or attacker for just long enough to run away. The inflammatory properties of pepper spray are perfectly suited to giving a victim enough time to escape.
Pepper spray, from its earliest inception has always been used and marketed as a repellent, a powerful and natural substance that will temporarily and without causing permanent harm, incapacitate a person or animal, long enough to get away from them, or for law enforcement to arrest them. Widely recognized as a first line of defense, pepper spray is a great choice for the regular citizen looking to protect themselves.
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